Maya Butalid-Echaves
A paper for Cross-cultural psychology: Applications
July 1999
Counseling overseas Filipinos in the Netherlands necessarily brings up the question of cross-cultural counseling. Firstly, there is a lack of formally qualified Filipino counselors in the Netherlands. Overseas Filipinos needing counseling will thus have to avail of the services of Dutch institutions. The counseling relationship that then exists is that between a counselor with a Dutch cultural background and an overseas Filipino as a client. In this context, cross-cultural counseling is a helping relationship between the counselor and the client when the two are of dissimilar cultural and/or ethnic backgrounds (Dillard, 1985). Secondly, counseling is a product of the 20th century Euroamerican civilization, bound with certain key features of this culture; such as, individualism, egalitarianism, the glorification of social mobility and social change (Draguns, 1989). Thus, in the counseling of overseas Filipinos, culture also enters the counseling process through the counseling techniques and the counselor's cognitions, and that of the client. Thirdly, even when the counselor and the client are both overseas Filipinos, the differences in their acculturation processes affect the counseling process.
Culture, especially the less tangible aspects of culture which are absorbed in the process of socialization and in the course of lifelong incidental learning, is an invisible and silent participant in the counseling process. And the role of culture is even more obvious when clients and counselors of different cultural backgrounds encounter one another (Draguns, 1989).
In this paper, counseling is broadly defined to encompass any and all professional techniques and activities that are undertaken to resolve human problems. This goal is usually accomplished by principally verbal techniques in the context of a client-counselor relationship. Counseling is thus a form of helpful interpersonal communication (Draguns, 1989).
This paper aims to discuss how cross-cultural counseling of overseas Filipinos could be made more effective. To approach this discussion, the relevant aspects of Filipino values and culture and the specific problems of the overseas Filipinos in the Netherlands will first be presented. Then, the sources of difficulties in the cross-cultural counseling of overseas Filipinos will be discussed. Finally, conclusions to guide the practice of counseling of overseas Filipinos will be drawn.
In this paper, overseas Filipinos refer to the first generation Filipinos residing, either temporarily or permanently, in the Netherlands. This means that when they came to the Netherlands, they brought with them their Filipino values and culture as they were acquired in the Philippines. The so-called second generation Filipinos (i.e. those born in the Netherlands with Filipino parents, or with at least one Filipino parent) are not covered by this paper.
For the counseling of overseas Filipinos to be effective, one needs to understand Filipino values, and their specific problems and dilemmas related to their being in the Netherlands.
This paper does not intend to give a comprehensive view of Filipino values, but rather some insights which may be relevant in the counseling of overseas Filipinos.
One pervasive aspect of Filipino values pertains to the social orientation of the Filipino individual. Drawing from Japanese, Chinese and Filipino examples, Yau-Fai Ho (1993) came up with the concept of relational orientation as a framework for viewing human behavior. In this framework, the unit of analysis is not the individual, but the individual-in-relations, wherein the individual's embeddedness in the social network is fully recognized. Furthermore, Yau-Fai Ho (1993) differentiates relational orientation from collective orientation in that the emphasis is on relationships rather than on collective interests.
From the perspective of relational orientation, social acceptance and reciprocity are considered to be the most important of the basic aims that motivate and control an immense amount of Filipino behavior (Lynch, 1973). Social acceptance is gained and enhanced by smooth interpersonal relations. The importance of smooth interpersonal relations in the Filipino culture could be seen in the many levels by which Filipinos relate with others. These various levels of interpersonal relations of Filipinos are: (Enriquez, 1988)
At the core of the interpersonal relations of Filipinos are the concepts of kapwa (sense of fellow-being) and pakikiramdam (feeling for another). It is in the pakikipagkapwa, or relating at the level of kapwa that distinguishes pakikisama on the one hand, from pakikipagpalagayang-loob and pakikiisa on the other hand. The last two being at the levels of kapwa, wherein shared identity is recognized. Pakikiramdam refers to heightened awareness and sensitivity for the other. It is an active and dynamic process involving great care and deliberation, paying attention to subtle cues and non-verbal behavior, and employing mental role playing (as in "If I were in the other's situation, how would I feel?") (Mataragnon, 1986). Pakikiramdam is thus not only engaging in cognitive-intentional activities, but more importantly has an affective component (Mataragnon, 1988). It is in ones capacity for pakikiramdam that one can achieve the level of pakikiisa in interpersonal relations.
Another important aspect of the Filipino values and culture is the strong family system. The Filipino family consists not just of parents and children, as in the case of the present-day Western family, but is an extended family with bilateral kinship. The Filipino finds his identity in his family connections rather than as an individual in his own rights (Sechrest, 1969). In addition, the individual is likely to receive almost complete support from his/her family should he/she become involved in difficulties of any sort. At the other side of this, one is expected to offer "unsollicited" support and help to other family members in need and with problems. Family loyalties are also very important; family interests being more important than the individual's own interests. Furthermore, most Filipino families have an authoritarian set-up (Bulatao, 1969). In child rearing much emphasis is placed upon the authority of the parent and the right of the parent to know and control all aspects of a child's behavior (Sechrest, 1969).
Another aspect of the Filipino values and culture worth mentioning is that pertaining to the Filipino's view of life events and situations. One such concept is the untranslatable bahala na. Enriquez (1988) views bahala na as a combination of fatalism and determinism. Lagmay (1976) observed that bahala na operates in a situation which is marked by uncertainty and lacking in information. Despite the uncertainty of the situation very few avoid or run away from it, but instead utter bahala na and face the situation anyway. Bahala na, according to Lagmay (1976), is indicative of the improvisatory personality of the Filipino. It allows one to cope and adapt in unstructured, indefinite, unpredictable and stressful situations.
Other concepts in the Filipino values and culture which may be relevant to bear in mind in the counseling of overseas Filipinos are:
One last thing to mention is the long history of Spanish and American colonialism in the Philippines. These have left significant imprints in the Filipino consciousness. Spanish colonialism introduced Catholicism, making it the most important religion in the country covering 85% of the Filipino populace (Van Oosterhout et al., 1993). American colonialism, on the other hand, has made far more reaching influence in the Filipino consciousness in the fields of education, media and governance. English, for example, continues to be the medium of instruction in Philippine schools at all levels.
Palpallatoc (1997) enumerated a number of issues and concerns faced by the overseas Filipinos in the Netherlands, based on information gathered from consultations among various Filipino organizations in the Netherlands. These problems especially apply to overseas Filipinos in mixed marriages or relationships (i.e.Filipino-Dutch).
Butalid-Echaves (1999) noted the following types of problems faced by overseas Filipinos related to their being in the host countries of Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands:
Dornic (1986) emphasizes language as a major component in the stress to which a typical immigrant is exposed. Language is man's basic means of communication, and as such plays a major role in the difficult process of adaptation. In a study (Dornic, 1986) language was found to be a more important cause of the immigrant's relative social isolation than differences in attitudes, customs, habits, social norms and values.
Ethnic matching
One source of difficulty in cross-cultural counseling arises from the fact that the counselor and the client have different ethnic backgrounds. Ethnicity has by itself a stimulus value to both the counselor and the client, reflective of the existing relations in a given society. Sue (1988) cited that one difficulty encountered by ethnic minorities in psychotherapy is that therapists may hold stereotypes or biases concerning ethnic minority clients. On the other hand, ethnic clients may also have biases concerning the therapist. In both cases, it can be assumed that biases per se are likely to be detrimental to the counseling process.
Thus, to an overseas Filipino client, a Dutch counselor may generate certain feelings and conceptions he/she has towards the Dutch people, in general, which may be projected towards the Dutch counselor. Some overseas Filipinos, for example, experience the attitude of superiority and arrogance among the many Dutch they relate with. When such is also projected towards the Dutch counselor, the overseas Filipino client may develop resistance towards the Dutch counselor making the whole counseling process very tedious and maybe ineffective. Another possible source of stimulus with respect to the Dutch counselor may come from the attitudes Filipinos have towards the West as a result of the long history of colonialism in the Philippines. Some Filipinos consider all that comes from the West to be superior (the so-called colonial mentality in the Philippines), while others have developed a strong sense of Filipino nationalism resulting in feelings of aversion towards the West. When such consciousness enter the counseling process, its effectiveness will be threatened.
Counseling as a Western invention
Another source of difficulty in the cross-cultural counseling of overseas Filipinos arises from the fact that counseling is a product of Western civilization. This means that the theoretical framework of, and the methodology and techniques used in the counseling process such as: psychoanalysis, behavioral, cognitive and existential have as points of reference the Western culture and thinking. In addition, many of the basic assumptions of counseling such as: the scientific and rational approach, the striving for success as individuals and the preference for active adjustment over passive acceptance reflect the social, economic, and political context of the Western Euroamerican cultures (Pedersen et al., 1989).
From this perspective, applying the theory and methodology of counseling to overseas Filipinos, for example, whose behavior can best be viewed in the context of the individual-in-relations (i.e. from a relational orientation framework) may result in a disjointed counseling process. Hsu (1972) proposed the concept of psychosocial homeostasis which emphasizes the individual in context and the relationship between persons as more important than individual success.
Interpersonal communication
Counseling is essentially a process of interpersonal interaction and communication (Sue et al., 1981; Draguns, 1989). For counseling to be effective, the counselor and client must, thus, be able to appropriately and accurately send and receive both verbal and nonverbal messages. While breakdowns in communication often happen between members of the same culture, the problem is enhanced between people of different ethnic and cultural backgrounds (Sue et al., 1981).
While language is most important for human communication, it is also a very culture-specific medium (Berry et al., 1992). At the most obvious level, interaction is very limited when two people do not share a common language. Less obvious are communication difficulties when the command of a language is less than perfect such as; variations in the pronunciation, intonations, choice of words, and use of idiomatic expressions. At the level of nonverbal language, despite the overall similarities, there are definitely cross-cultural differences, for example, in the meaning of specific gestures and emotive facial expressions. And lastly, communication difficulties can also occur with the differences in the pragmatic aspects of language such as; taking turns in conversations, exchange of compliments, politeness, and an indirect versus a direct style of communication (Berry et al., 1992).
For example, the Western style of communication favors giving direct, clear, and unambiguous messages. Filipinos, on the other hand, rely more on indirect, subtle, and nonverbal communication, in which pakikiramdam plays a crucial role (Mataragnon, 1988). Thus, a Filipino who needs help often attempts to convey this to the other, not by directly asking for it but by sending signals (paramdam) with the expectation (or hope) that the recipient has enough pakikiramdam to read them.
Culture-bound values
Closely related to the first three sources of difficulties in counseling already discussed earlier (i.e. ethnic matching, counseling as a Western invention and interpersonal communication), another source of difficulty is the (possible) lack of capacity to understand certain culture-bound values of the Filipino, and how these values interact with one another. Culture-bound values are developed during ones socialization process. Thus, to an outsider, understanding how these values operate and motivate human behavior is extremely difficult to achieve. This problem is accentuated when the culture in question, as in the case of the Filipino culture, is less verbal; and the values in question operates on the affective level such as, pakikiramdam, hiya, utang na loob, and bahala na.
To illustrate this: A Filipina received a letter from her family in the Philippines indicating that her father is ill and is spending a lot on medicines, while at the same time telling her not to worry. To the Filipina, it is obvious to send financial assistance to her family. In conveying this need to her Dutch husband all she did was to show the letter to him. The Dutch husband took note of the information as such, but failed to get the unspoken message of his Filipina wife which is "Let's send money to my family." Very disappointed and angry, the Filipina wife gave her Dutch husband a cold and silent treatment. The Dutch husband, puzzled by this behavior, asked his wife what the problem was. The wife, more disappointed and feeling uncomfortable with the idea of expressing her need verbally, answered her husband's query with crying. And everytime the husband asked what's wrong, the wife just kept on crying. Conflict ensued, the Dutch husband started to think that his wife was getting crazy, and the Filipina wife was continuously disturbed at the hopeless insensitivity of her husband.
To a counselor, who is unfamiliar with the Filipino values operating in this case, would easily view this as a simple problem of miscommunication, wherein the solution lies at helping the Filipina wife express her needs to her husband. However, to the Filipina wife, such an approach will short change the problem. To the Filipina wife, the Filipino values of pakikiramdam (i.e. unsaid request for help from her family), her feelings of utang na loob towards her family and the impact of strong family ties towards her are at play. To some, who (intentionally or unintentionally) project a high status towards families and friends in the Philippines because of the fact that they live abroad (and in such a rich country as the Netherlands), an attitude born out of the colonial mentality of the Filipino, the pressure of sending financial help is even greater because the value of hiya is also at play. This problem is thus much more than just a simple case of miscommunication.
Acculturation processes
Even in a counseling situation wherein both the counselor and the client are overseas Filipinos, difficulties could still arise. An important source of such difficulty is the differences in the acculturation processes between the counselor and the client. Acculturation is a process that individuals undergo (usually later in life) in response to a changing cultural context (Berry et al., 1992). In this case, the overseas Filipinos undergo a process of acculturation when coming to the Netherlands. Berry (1980) identified four modes of acculturation, namely:
A Filipino counselor, for example, with a high level of assimilation may be less effective in relating to a Filipino client whose tendency is towards separation. To this client, the counselor may be viewed as having identified "too much" with the Dutch culture and thus would not be capable of understanding her/his point of view. Also, the counseling process between two overseas Filipinos may be subject to factors as jealousy, group loyalty expectations, feelings of guilt towards own group for having chosen to either assimilate or integrate, etc., which negatively affects the counseling process.
The first question that needs to be addressed is whether the counselor should also be a Filipino for the counseling of overseas Filipinos to be effective. Ethnicity per se is a stimulus value to both the counselor and the client. To an overseas Filipino client, a Dutch counselor may generate negative feelings and conceptions (see section on Ethnic matching). However, this may also happen in the case of a Filipino counselor (see section on Acculturation processes). Sue (1988) argued that ethnicity per se says very little about the attitudes, values, experiences, and behaviors of individuals, counselors or clients. He went on by saying that, considerable differences may exist within individuals of the same ethnic group. Thus, ethnic matches can result in cultural mismatches if counselors and clients from the same ethnic group show markedly different values, for example, in the case of a highly assimilated Filipino counselor who works with an overseas Filipino client with strong separation tendencies. Ethnicity per se is, thus, a secondary variable in the counseling process. What is more important is being able to translate one's cultural knowledge about the client in concrete behaviors in the counseling process, such that the client's belief that the counselor is understanding, knowledgeable and competent is enhanced.
A second question to be addressed pertains to the theoretical framework of, and the methodology and techniques used in counseling. First of all, the counselor should be aware of the Western orientation of counseling as a methodology of helping individuals with problems. One should therefore be critical and reserved in applying the method of counseling to individuals coming from non-Western cultural backgrounds, such as the overseas Filipinos. Furthermore, other frameworks could also be used in the counseling process. One such framework which seems fit in understanding the behavior of overseas Filipinos is what Yau-Fai Ho (1993) conceptualized as the relational orientation framework (see section on The Filipino values and culture).
Using the relational orientation framework, the counselor will be in a better position to understand the dynamics of pakikiramdam, strong family system, utang na loob and hiya in motivating the behavior of his/her overseas Filipino client (see also section on Cultural-bound values). Also, the acculturation process that the overseas Filipino client is undergoing and engaging in, could better be understood when viewed from the relational orientation perspective. For example, a Dutch counselor would generally view the assimilation and integration of overseas Filipinos as positive and healthy. However, an overseas Filipino who pursues assimilation or integration may experience a tremendous amount of stress coming from the rest of the Filipino community whose tendency is towards separation, and from her/his family in the Philippines due to perceived differences in values and thinking. If such factors are overlooked in the counseling process, the outcome may not be too successful.
Applying the framework of relational orientation does not only help the counselor to better understand his/her overseas Filipino client. It also enables the counselor to see more comprehensively the available resources the overseas Filipino client has to help him/her out of his/her own problem. These resources, viewing from the relational orientation framework, include not only one's personal resources but as well as those resources coming from one's social network as the family.
The third and last question which needs to be tackled pertains to the (lack of) capacity to understand the dynamics of certain culture-bound values in the behavior of the overseas Filipino (see also section on Culture-bound values). For a Dutch counselor, striving fully to understand this may not be the optimal solution. What may give more promise is making use of the existing networks of the Filipino community in the Netherlands. There exists at least one Filipino organization in almost all major cities in the Netherlands. In addition, there are also several Filipino organizations operating nationwide, i.e. with members spread throughout the country. Many of these organizations, aside from organizing social activities among their constituencies, also engage in informal counseling and in giving assistance and support to fellow Filipinos within their reach. These networks of the Filipino community in the Netherlands could be a potential source of Filipino trained informants to assist professional Dutch counselors in the counseling process with overseas Filipino clients. Also, it will be good if the Filipino community in the Netherlands would be able to produce, in addition to trained Filipino informants, professional counselors from its own ranks.
To conclude, the counseling of overseas Filipinos in the Netherlands is inevitably situated in a cross-cultural setting. This poses a lot of difficulties that challenge the effectiveness of the counseling process. However, working towards effective counseling of overseas Filipinos is not unrealistic to achieve.
1
Some points in this paper may also apply to overseas Filipinos elsewhere, other than in the Netherlands. However, because the writer, being an overseas Filipino herself residing in the Netherlands, is more familiar with the situation of the overseas Filipinos in the Netherlands and of the country, the choice was made to limit the topic to cross-cultural counseling as it applies to the overseas Filipinos in the Netherlands.
